Historical Sources

The sources that give information about the events of past time are known as ‘Historical Sources’. There are two types of Historical Sources – Literary Sources and Archaeological Sources. Compared to Literary Sources, Archaeological Sources are believed to be more reliable, because it is almost impossible to change them. That’s why, as hysterical evidence, the archaeological sources take precedence over the literary sources. The Archaeological sources are more important to the study of Ancient India.

I.  Literary Sources:

Literary Sources are divided into two categories – Indigenous and Foreign.

A. Indigenous Sources:

Indigenous Sources are divided into two categories – Religious and Secular. Under

Religious texts Brahmanic (Hindu) texts, Buddhist texts and Jain texts are included. Under

Secular texts Historical texts, Semi-Historical texts, Biographical texts etc. are included.

Brahmanic (Hindu) Texts

Under Brahmanic (Hindu) texts Shruti & Smriti texts are included.

Shruti Texts: Samhitas or Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas & Upanishadas.

Smriti Texts: Vedangas or Sutras, Smrities, Epics (Ramayana & Mahabharata) and Purans.

    There are four Samhitas or Vedas – Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharva Veda.

Samhita / Veda	Composing Time	Composing Region
Rig Veda	1,500 BC – 1,000 BC	Sapta Saindhav Region
Yajur, Sama & Atharva Veda	1,100 BC – 600 BC	Kuru – Panchala Region

    Vedas throw more light on religious, social & economic life and less light on Political life of

the Aryans. From point of view of history Rig Veda & Atharva Veda have more importance

than Yajur Veda & Sama Veda.

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The composing time of Brahmanas is 1,000 BC to 600 BC. Shatapatha Brahmana throws

light on Gandhar, Shalya, Kekaya etc of North – West region and Kuru-Panchala, Koshala,

Videsha states of East region of India.

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The composing time of Aranyakas is 1,000 BC to 600 BC. The historical importance of

Aranyakas is negligible.

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The composing time of Upanishads is 1,000 BC to 500 BC. The best learnings of

Upanishads is ‘Para-Vidya’ i.e., Spiritual Learning. The aim of life is merging the

individual’s soul into world’s soul which is known as ‘Para – Vidya’.

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The combined study of Brahmanas & Upanishads provides historical information from king

Parikshit to king Bimbisar.

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The composing time of Vedangas is 600 BC to 200 AD. The Vedangas throw light on

ancient Indian history, civilization & Culture.

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The composing time of Smritis is 600 BC to 600 AD. The Smritis provide the knowledge of

social organisations, their theories, customs, king’s rights & duties, king’s relation with their

subjects, etc.

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The composing time of Epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata) is 400 BC to 400 AD.

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The Ramayana (Valmiki) throws light on political, social and religious conditions of India

of that time. Here I provide information about the origin & development of Janapadas.

Besides this, mentions Yavanas (Greeks) & Sakas (Scythians).

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The Mahabharata (Ved Vyas) throws light on political, social & religious condition of India

of that time. It is the extensive form of Mahabharata war which is fought around 950 BC

between the Kauravas & Pandavas. The Mahabharata claims: “Yann Bharate Tann Bharate”

i.e., which is not ‘Mahabharata’ that is not found in Bharat (India). Girivraja, the capital of

Magadha is mentioned in it. The Mahabharata informs us that the Panchala state was in

existence from the time of Mahabharata. Besides this, mentions Huns along with Yavanas &

Sakas.

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The Composing time of Purans is 400 BC to 400 AD. The Purans throw light on the history

of India from very beginning to Gupta period. Generally Purans have 5 segments – Sarga

(Creation of the Universe), Pratisarga (Re – creation), Vamsa (Genealogy of the gods and

the sages), Manvantar (Epochs of Manu) & Vansanucharitam (narratives of ancient

dynaties) in which only Vansanucharitam is important from point of view of history.

Unfortunately Vansanucharitam are not found in every Purans. The only Purans that have

Vansanucharitam are – Matsya, Bhagwat, Vishnu, Vayu, Brahma, Bhavishya, &Garud

Puran. Garud Puran has genealogy of Purava, Ikshwaku & Brahdrath dynasties, but its date

is not definite.

Buddhist Texts

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The Buddhist texts are divided into two categories— Pali Texts & Anupali Texts.

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Among Pali texts ‘Tripitaka’, ‘Deep Vansha’ & ‘Mahavansha’, ‘Milindpannaho’ etc are

important texts.

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The ‘Tripitika’ is the earliest and the most important texts among Pali Texts. The ‘Tripitaka’

comprises ‘Vinaya Pitaka’, ‘Sutta Pitaka’ & ‘Abhidhamma Pitaka’. The ‘Vinaya Pitaka’ &

the ‘Sutta Pitaka’ were compiled in the First Buddhist Council (483 BC) held in Rajagriha

(Bihar) while the ‘Abhidhamma Pitaka’ was compiled in the third Buddhist Council (250

BC) held in Patliputra (Bihar). The ‘Tripitaka’ throws light on social and religious life of

India of that time i.e., the centuries before Christ.

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‘Vinaya Pitaka’ contains disciplinary rules & regulations for leading a monastic life.

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‘Sutta Pitaka’ is the largest and the most important text among Tripitaka. ‘Ambattha Sutta’

of Digh Nikaya of Sutta Pitaka contains the description of the special pride of Kshatriya for

blood – purity. ‘Anguttara Nikaya’ of Sutta Pitaka contains the list of 16 Mahajanapadas.

‘Jataka’ of Khuddaka Nikaya of Sutta Pitaka contains 549 folk tales of the previous births of

Gautama Buddha. The compilation of ‘Jataka’ had begun in 1^st Century BC. This fact is

very clear from the scenaries curved on the railings of Bharahuta & Sanchi Stupas. The

verse part of Jataka is older than the prose part. The compilation of the verse part of the

Jataka had been completed up to 2^nd Century AD. Though ‘Jataka’ is a religious & cultural

text, it thorws suffice light on social & economical condition of that time.

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‘Abhidhamma Pitaka’  deals with the doctrines of the Buddha in scholastic manner.

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‘Deep Vansha’ (4^th Century AD) & ‘Maha Vansha’ (5^th Century AD) had been compiled in

Sri Lanka. Though these texts contain the history of Sri Lanka, they throw light on ancient

Indian history, especially these are very helpful in constructing Mauryan history.

~~~~~~~~~

Originally ‘Milindpannaho’ i.e., Question of Milind is a dialogue between Greek king

Milind (identified as Menander, the Indo – Greek ruler) and Buddhist monk Nagasena

(identified as Nagarjuna) on philosophical & economic life of North – West India of 1^st –

2^nd century AD. The political condition of that time is mentioned occasionally in it. The

foreign trade of India is lively described in it.

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Among Anupali Texts (i.e., Sanskrit Texts & other texts) ‘Divyavadan’,

‘Aryamanjushrimulkalpa’, ‘Lalit Vistar’ etc. are important texts

~~~~~~~~~

‘Divyavadan’ contains the stories of later Mauryan king & Shunga king (Pushyamitra

Shunga) and life of Gautam Buddha.

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Political events of Pre – Mauryan period to Vardhana period (Harshavardhana) are

described occasionally in ‘Aryamanjushrimulkalpa’.

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‘Lalit Vistar’ contains the act of Gautam Buddha along with religious and social conditions

of that time.

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Jain Texts

~~~~~~~~~

The Jain texts were eventually compiled in 6^th century AD in 2^nd Jain Mahasabha held at

Vallabhi in Gujarat. The Jain texts throws light on religious & social conditions of that time.

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Among the Jain texts 12 Angas are important. The ‘Acharanga Sutra’ contains disciplinary

rules & regulations for Jain Monks. ‘Bhagwati Sutra’ throws light on the life of Mahavira

and contains the list of 16 Mahajanapadas. ‘Namadhamma Katha Sutra’ conatins the

preachings of Mahavira. ‘Antagada – dasao’ & ‘Anutarovavaiydasao’ contain life stories of

famous Jain monks. ‘Vivagasuyam Sutra’ contains discussion on Karma Phala i.e. fruit of

actions.

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‘Bhadrabahu Charita’ contains the life–sketch of Jain Acharya Bhadrabahu along with the

glimpses of the later the life of Mauryan king Chandragupta Maurya.

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From point of view of history, the ‘Parishishtaparva’ written by Jain Acharya Hemchandra

has the most important place among Jain Texts.

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Historical Texts

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Although there is no such texts of ancient India that can be properly called historical text,

because almost every text had been written in a literary or religious colour, but there are

some certain texts in which some historical material are available in a dispersed manner.

~~~~~~~~~

Kautilya’s ‘Arthashashtra’ was compiled in 14^th Century BC. It gives not only detailed

information in 4^th century BC. It gives not only detailed information about the system of

administration, but also an idea of the social and religious life of the people of that time. It

is comparable with Aristotle’s ‘Politics’ and Machiavelli’s ‘Prince’.

~~~~~~~~~

Kamandaka’s  ‘Neetisar’ (4^th – 6^th century AD) throws some light on the monarchy of

Gupta Period.

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Shukra’s ‘Shukraneetisar’ throws some light on the monarchy of that time.

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Somdev Suri’s ‘Neetisar Neetivakyamrita’ gives information about state machinery of that

time.

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Brihaspati’s ‘Brahaspatya Arthashastra’ is a text in Kautilya’s ‘Arthashashtra’ tradition.

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The best example of the earliest historical writing is provided by ‘Rajatarangini’ (i.e., the

stream of kings) written by Kalhana in the 12^th century AD. It is a string of biographies of

the kings of Kashmir. It may be the first work to possess several characteristics of historical

writing as it is understood today. In the words of eminent historian R.C. Majumdar: “There

is only one historical work, properly so called, written by Kalhana in 12^th Century AD. This

is ‘Rajatarangini’ which deals with the history of Kashmir from the earliest times up to the

date of composition of that work (i.e., 1148 – 50 AD). It assumes, however, a regular

historical form only from the 7^th Century AD. The earliest chapter being a medley of

confused traditions and fanciful imaginations”.

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The chronicles of Gujarat—‘Prabandh Kosh’ (Rajashekhara), ‘Hammir Mad Mardan’ (Jai

Singh), ‘Tejpal Prashasti’ (Vastupal), ‘Prabhandha Chintamani’ (Meruttung) etc throw light

on the history of Gujrat.

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The most remarkable text among the chronicles of Sindh is ‘Chachanama’. In 8^th Century

AD Qazi Ishamail, qazi of Alor appointed by Muhammad Bin Qasim, wrote a book namely

‘Tarikh-i-sind-wa-Hind’ (i.e., History of Sindh or Hind) in Arabic language which is

translated in Persian language by the name of ‘Chachanama’ by Ali Bin Hamid Kufi in 1216

AD. The ‘Chachanama’ is also known as ‘Fatehnama-i-Sindh’. It provides detailed

description of Muhammad Bin Quasim’s Sindh conquest (711 – 12 AD).

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Semi – Historic Texts

~~~~~~~~~

Though Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’ is a grammar book, it throws suffice light on political

condition of Pre – Maurya & Maurya period.

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Sage Gargi’s ‘Gargi Samhita’ is a part of ‘Yug Puran’. It is basically a Jyotish text but it is

also mentions Greek and Scythian invasions.

~~~~~~~~~

Patanjali’s ‘Mahabhashya’ is basically a commentary book on Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyay’, but it

also provide ample historical material regarding that time.

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Kalidasa’s ‘Malvikagnimitra’ is a play (drama). It is the first play written by him. It

provides information about political condition of Shunga Dynasty and previous Royal

Dynasties. It is called the mirror of interior life of royal dynasties.

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Vishakhadatta’s ‘Mudrarakshasa’ is basically a drama, but it contains the description of

Chandragupta Maurya, his prime minister Chanakya and some contemporary kings. It

describes how Chandragupta Maurya got Chanakya’s assistance and overthrow the Nandas.

Besides this, it gives an excellent account of the prevalling socio-economic conditions of

that time.

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Biographical Texts

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Biographical writers took lives of their royal patrons as the theme of their literary works.

So the biographical texts cannot be regarded as genuine history although they contains some

valuable historical information. Their main object was the glorification of the king rather

than giving a real picture of his life and times. That’s why these are called ‘Prashasti Kavya’

i.e., eulogy verse.

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Banabhatta composed ‘Harsha Charita’ based on the life of his patron king Harshavardhan

in 620 AD. It is the earliest available biographical texts in India. It is written in Sanskrit

language. It contains 8 Uchchhawas i.e., chapters. The first 3 chapters contains the

autobiography of Banabhatta and rest 5 chapters contain the life – story of Harshavardhana.

Though highly exaggerated, it gives us excellent idea of court life under Harshvardhana and

the social and religious life in his time.

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Vakpatiraj’s ‘Gaudvaho’ (GaudVadhah) contains detailed description of victories of

Yashovarmana, the Chandra ruler of Kannauj in which the most important event described

is killing (Vadha) of Gaud king by king of Kannauj, Yashovarmana.

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Padmagupta Parimal’s ‘Navasahanska Charita’ describes the life – story of  Vakpati Munj,

the Paramara ruler of Malwa.

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Ballal’s ‘Bhoja Prabandha’ contains the life – story of Bhoja, the Paramara ruler of Malwa.

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Bihana’s ‘Vikramanka Charita’ recounts the achievments of his patron Vikramaditya-VI

(Vikramanka), the Chalukya King of Kalyani. It decribes the circumstances in which

Vikramaditya-VI (Vikramanka) ascended the throne of Kalyani.

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Sandhyakar Nandin’s ‘Ramcharita’ throws light on the history of Pala dynasty. Nandin

called himself ‘Valmiki of Kali Yuga’ and his patron Rampala as ‘Rama’. Nandin wrote this

book in an extraordinary style it simultaneously narrates the story of Rama, the hero of

‘Ramayana’ and Rampala, the Pal king. Such style of verse (poetry) is known as ‘Dvyasraya

Kavya’ i.e., a verse with two bases (meanings).

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Hemchandra’s Sanskrit-Prakrit text ‘Kumarpala Charita’ describes Kumarpala, the

Chauluhya Solanki ruler of Anihalwara. It is also a ‘Dvyasraya Kavya’. It simultaneously

narrates the story of the king Kumarpala and rules of Sanskrit & Prakrit grammar.

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Jay Singh Suri’s ‘Kumarpala Bhupala Charita’ describes Kumarpala, the Chalukya ruler of

Anihalwara.

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Anand Bhatt’s ‘Ballalcharita’ describes the history of Ballal Sena, the Sena ruler of Bengal.

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Chandbardai was a court poet and friend of Prithwiraja-III, the Chauhan ruler of

Shakambhari. He wrote ‘Prithwiraja Raso’; the first epic of Hindi language. ‘Prithwiraja

Raso’ describes the life – account of Prithwiraja-III and conflict between Prithwiraja-III &

Muhammad Ghori.

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Jayanak’s ‘Prithwiraja Vijaya’ contains poetic description of struggles of Prithwiraja-III, the

Chauhan ruler.

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Jayachandra’s ‘Hammir Kavya’ describes the life – account of Hammir Dev, the Chauhan

ruler of Ranathambore.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Rajnath-II’s ‘Achyutrajabhyudaya’ thorws light on Achyutadeva Ray, the Tuluva ruler of

Vijayanagar.

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Court Poets & Their Patron Kings
Court Poet	Patron King (Dynasty)
Banabhatta	Harshavardhana : 606 – 47 (Vardhana)
Vakpatiraja	Yashovaramana : 700 – 40 (Chandra)
Padmagupta Parimal	Vakpatimunj : 973 – 96 (Parmara)
Vallal	Bhoja : 1010 – 55 (Parmara)
Bihana	Vikramaditya-VI : 1076 – 1126 (Chalukya)
Sandhyakar Nandin	Rampala : 1077 – 1120 (Pala)
Hemchandra	Kumarpala : 1088 – 1172 (Chalukya / Solanki)
Jai Singh Suri	Kumar Pala : 1088 – 1172 (Chalukya / Solanki)
Anand Bhatta	Balladsena : 1158 – 78 (Sena)
Chandbardai	Prithwiraja-III : 1178 – 92 (Chauhana)
Jayanak	Prithwiraja-III : 1178 – 92 (Chauhana)
Jaychandra	Hammirdeva : 1283 – 1301 (Chauhana)
Rajanath-II	Achyutadeva Ray : 1529 – 42 (Tuluva)

B. Foreign Sources:

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Indigenous sources can be supplemented by foreign sources. The writings of foreign

travellers and chronicles provide valuable sources of ancient Indian history; of these, some

visited India and some others who never visited India (like Herodotus, Ktesias, Pliny, Justin,

Sihab al Dinumari etc.) but based their accounts on information’s received from different

sources.

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To India came Greek, Chinese, Tibetan, Arabian (Arab) visitors, merchants, ambassadors,

historians, pilgrims, travellers etc. and some of them left behind accounts of the things that

they saw.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

These accounts help in the writing of Indian History, especially in resolving the problem of

chronology. These have been found immensely useful in building up the framework of

Indian Chronology.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Foreign sources can be divided into four categories ---- Greek-Roman, Chinese, Tibetan,

Arabian (Arab).

Greek Writers

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It is remarkable that Alexander’s invasions find no mention in Indian sources and it is

totally on the basis of the Greek sources that we have to reconstruct the history of his Indian

Invasions.

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The names of Greek writers of Pre-Alexandrian time are – Scylax, Hecataeus Milletus,

Herodotus and Ktesias.

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Scylax (6^th Century BC) was the first Greek writer who wrote about India. He was the

Greek soldier of king Darius-I (550 BC – 486 BC) of Persia (Iran). He was sent by the king 

to discover the course of Indus River. He wrote his travel account but his knowledge was

limited to Indus valley.

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Hecataeus Milletus (549 BC – 496 BC) was a Greek historian and geographer. His

knowledge about India was limited to Indus Valley.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Herodotus (484 BC – 425 BC) is called ‘The Father of History’. He, in his famous text

‘Historics’, gives us suffice information about Persia (Iranian) and Greek Invasion and

Indo-Persian / Iranian relations. Although he never visited India, he tells us about the

political condition of North – West India in his time. He knew of India as the easternmost

and the most numerous people inhabiting the empire of the Persian emperor, Darius-I. The

land region of Northern India, 20^th satrapy (i.e., province) of Darius’s empire, paid him the

huge annual tribute of 360 talents gold dust. He writes that Indian wear cloths, made of

wool, which grows on tree. It proves that, long before the Christian era, Indians were

familiar with the cultivation of cotton, and made use of the cotton fibre to weave their

clothes when Greeks knew nothing about it. Herodotus sometimes could be led away from

the truth that can be seen from his account of gold – digging ants of the size of dogs.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Ktesias (416 BC – 398 BC) was a Greek physician at the court of Persian emperor

Artaxaxes Mhemon. He had every opportunity of knowing the stories about Indian; but he

has left account titled ‘Presica’ which is full of lies and exaggerations. It has survived only

in the form of an abridgement.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

The name of Greek writers of Alexandrian time are ---- Nearchus, Onesicritus and

Aristobulus.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Nearchus was the classmate and admiral of naval fleet of Alexander the Great. He was sent

by Alexander to discover the coastal area between Persian Gulf and Indus. His original book

has been lost, but the later writer like Strabo, Arrian etc. quoted passages from the original

book.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Onesicritus was the Pilot of naval fleet of Alexander the Great. He took part in the

expedition of Nearchus and wrote book about India. He also wrote the biography of

Alexander the Great.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Aristobulus was a geographer. Alexander gave him some responsibilities. He described his

own experiences in the book ‘The History of War’. Later Greek writer Arrian has utilised

his account in the ‘Anabasis of Alexander’.

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The name of Greek writers of Post – Alexandrian time are ---- Megasthenese, Deimachus,

Dionysis, Patrocles, Timosthene, Aelian, Diodorus, Strabo, Plutarch, anonymous Greek

writer of ‘Periplus’, Arrian & Kosmos/Cosmos Indicopleustes.

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Megasthenes (350 BC – 290 BC) was a Greek ambassador (envoy) sent by seleucus

Nicator, the Greek king of Persia (Iran) & Babylonia, to the court of Chandragupta Maurya,

the founder of Maurya Dynasty where he resided up to 6 years (302 BC – 296 BC). He

wrote a book on India called ‘Indica’. The Original Book has been lost but later writers like

Diodorus, Strabo, Pliny (Roman), Arrian, Justin, etc. preserved the passages from the

original book and those passages have been collected to give an idea as to what

Megasthanese thought about India. Those passages have been translated into English by Mc

Crindle. The information given by Megasthenese is quite detailed on certain points. Among

other things, he described –

(a). The geographical features of India,

(b). The fertility of the country,

(c). Patliputra, the capital of Chandragupta Maurya,

(d). The absence of slavery in India,

(e). The 7 castes of the Indians,

(f). The rare occurrence of theft in the country,

(g). Indian Philosophers, and

(h). The part played by Dionysus and Herakles in India.

Scholars have differed in their estimate of Megasthenese’s veracity (truthfulness). In the

present state of our knowledge, perhaps it is best to say that, though Magsthenese related

what he saw truthfully, there are also things that he reproduced from hearsay.

‘Indica’ was the first book through which ancient Europe knew about India. Megasthenese

was the first ambassador who is mentioned in Indian History.

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Deimachus was a Greek ambassador sent by Antiochus-I, the ruler of Syria, to the court of

Bindusara, the second Maurayan ruler. His original work has been lost, but later writers

preserved passages from the original book.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Dionysios was a Greek ambassador sent by Philadelphus (Ptolemy-II), the ruler of

Egypt, to the court of Bindusara, the second Mauryan ruler. His original book is lost,

only passages have survived in the writing of later Greek writers.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Patrocles (250 BC) was a Greek governor of the Province that lies between Caspian Sea

& Indus river under the rulership of Seleucus & Antiochus-I. He described India and

other countries in his book.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Timosthene was the naval admiral of Philadelphus (Ptolemy-II).

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Aelian (100 BC) was a Greek historian. His book ‘A Collection of Miscellaneous History’

contains the description of North-West Province.

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Diodorus (died – 36 BC) was a famous Greek historian. He is known for ‘Bibliotheca

Historica’. He wrote about India on the basis of description found in Megasthenese .His

book gives suffice information regarding Alexander’s invasion and India.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Strabo (64 B – 19 BC) was a Greek historian and geographer. His text ‘Geographia’ has an

important place in History along with Geography. He described geographical condition

along with social, religious, economic conditions of India. He mentions the marital

relationship between Seleucus Nicator & Sandrokottus (identified as Chandragupta

Maurya). He mentions women bodyguards of Sandrokottus (Chandragupta Maurya).

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Plutarch’s (45 – 125 AD) book contains the description of the life of Alexander the Great

and general introduction of India. He wrote : “When Androkottus (identified as

Chandragupta Maurya) was young, he met Alexander the Great”.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

The anonymous Greek writer of ‘Periplus of the Erythrean Sea / Periplus Maris

Erythraei’ i.e., sailing around the Red Sea (80 – 115 AD) made a voyage to the Indian

coast about 80 AD and he has left a record of its ports, harbours and merchandise. ‘Periplus’

gives an idea of the maritime activities of ancient Indians. This text is known as ‘a guide of

sea trade’. The unkown author of the ‘Periplus’ claims that Hippalus, a mariner, was

knowledgeable about the monsoon winds that shorten the trip from Red Sea to India. It

contains the detailed decription of trade between Roman Empire and the regions of South

India during 1^st Century AD.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Arrian (130 – 172 AD) was a famous Greek historian. He wrote two books ‘Indica’ &

‘Anabasis of Alexander’ (history of Alexander’s compaigns). The account of Arrian has

been regarded as the most reliable and authentic account among the accounts of Greek

writers concerned wih India. In this account Chandragupta Maurya is mentioned as

Androkottus.

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Kosmos / Cosmos Indicopleustes (537 – 547 AD) was a Greek merchant who later turned

to a Buddhist monk. He sailed down Mediterranian Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Sri Lanka &

India during 537 – 547 AD. Arround 550 AD he wrote ‘Christian Topography of the

Universe’ which contains valuable information about trade between India with Sri Lanka

and other countries situated in Western Sea coast.

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Roman / Latin Writers

Pliny (23 – 99 AD): He was a Roman historian. He was the contemporary of kushana ruler

Kanishka. He wrote an encyclopedic text ‘Naturulis Historica’ i.e. Natural History. He gives

the descriptions of India which is based on information received from Greeks and other

Western merchants. His text contains the detailed description about animals, plants and

minerals of India along with the trade relation between Rome (Italy) and India.

Curtius (1^st Century AD):  He was a Roman historian. He was the contemporary of

Roman emperor Claudius (41 -54 AD). His book contains suffice information about

Alexander the Great.

Ptolemy (2^nd Century AD): He was a Roman geographer & historian. His popular text

‘Geography’ contains information about ancient geography and trade between India and

Rome (Italy).

Justin (2^nd Century AD): He was a Roman historian. He wrote a text namely ‘Epitome’

i.e., summary of a written work. His text is based on Greek accounts. His text contains the

description of the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great along with power – seizing by

Chandragupta Maurya. Justin wrote about the role of Chandragupta Maurya in uprooting

Greek power from North-West India : “India after the death of Alexander had shaken, as it

were, the yoke of servitude from its neck and put his governors to death. The author of his

liberation was Sandrocottus”. (Sandrocottus is identified as Chandragupta Murya) 

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Chinese Writers

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Suma Chien (145 BC – 85 BC) was the first Chinese writer who wrote about India in his

text ‘Historical Memoirs’.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Pan Kou & Fanye (378 – 445 AD): ‘Annals of the Earlier Hans’ written by Pan Kou and

‘Annals of the Later Hans’ written by Fanye contain valuable information about Kushan

ruler Kujul Kadphises and Vem Kadphises.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Fa-hien (399 – 414 AD) came to India in 399 AD during the reign of Gupta ruler

Chandragupta-II ‘Vikramaditya’. He stayed in India for 15 – 16 years (399 – 414). He came

to India basically to cover an original copy of ‘Vinaya Pitaka’. After return to China he

wrote his travel account namely ‘Fo-Kyuo-Ki’ i.e., Records of Buddhist Countries. This

book is still available in the original form. It throws suffice light on history, civilization &

culture of Gupta period. It is written from Buddhist (religious) point of view, so there is a

lack of scientific temper.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Sung Yun (518 – 22 AD) came to India in quest of Buddhist texts and return to China with

170 Mahayana texts.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Hiuen Tsang (629 – 45 AD) came to India in 629 AD in reign of Harshavardhan, the ruler

of Vardhana dynasty. He stayed in India for 13 – 14 years (629 – 45). He studied Yogachar

doctrine in Nalanda Mahavihara for 5 years. In 641 AD he reached Kanchi in the reign of

Narsingh Varmana-I ‘Mammal’, the Pallava ruler of Kanchi and stayed there for a long

time. He wrote a travel account ‘Si-Yu-Ki’ (i.e., Buddhist Records of the Western World).

The account contains detailed information about history and culture of the country,

especially the life of Harshavardhana and his activities, administration, religious,

educational system of that time. It is truly a gazetteer. His account is really a storehouse of

information’s that helps to connect the discrete sequences of historic events of India. He

also writes about the Huna ruler Mihirkula (a contemporary of Gupta ruler Baladitya,

Budhagupta and some others who patronized the Nalanda Mahavihara). He is known as the

‘King or Prince of Pilgrims’.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Hwui Li wrote a biography of his friend Hiuen Tsang namely ‘life of Hiuen Tsang’. It

throws some light on Indian history.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Itsing (673 – 95 AD) came to India through a sea route via Sumatra. He stayed in Nalanda

Mahavihara for 10 years and studied Sanskrit texts and Buddhist texts. He wrote a travel

account ‘A Record of the Buddhistic Religion as Practised in India and Malay Archipelago’.

This text does not give much information about political history of India but it contains

precious information about Sanskrit literature and history of Buddhist religion. Itsing’s

Autobiographies of Famous Buddhist Monk’s contains detailed information about social,

economic and cultural life of India of that time. Itsing refers to Srigupta, who is generally

believed to have been the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Hui-Cho (727 AD) refers to the doings of Muktapida of Kashmir and Yashovarmana of

Kannauj.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Matwa Lin (13^th Century AD) gives the information about a eastern campaign of

Harshvardhana, the Vardhana ruler.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Mohaan (15^th Century AD) came to India in 1406 AD. He visited Bengal. He was very

impressed to see such an enriched region of India. He praised the manufactured things of

Bengal.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Tibetan Writers

~~~~~~~~~~

Taranath (12^th Century AD) was a popular Tibetan historian. He wrote ‘Kangyur’ &

‘Tangyur’. These texts give us information about ancient period of India.

~~~~~~~~~~~~

Dharmaswamy (13^th Century AD) came to India and studied in Nalanda Mahavihara for 3

years (1234 – 36 AD).

~~~~~~~~~~~

Arabian/Arab Writers

~~~~~~~~~~~

Sulaiman (851 AD) was an Arab merchant. He was the first Arab traveller whose travel

account is available. He sailed to all coastal areas of India. He came to India in 851 AD

during to reign of the Pratihar King Mihir Bhoja-I (836 – 85 AD). He stayed at the court of

Amoghavarsha (815 – 77 AD), the Rashtrakuta ruler and was very impressed with his might

and prosperity. He wrote a book named ‘Silsila—ut-Tawarikh’. He described the conditions

of earlier half of 9^th Century. He gives an intresting account of Pala, Pratihara &

Rashtrakuta kings. He called the Pala Empire ‘Ruhama’ (i.e., Dharma or Dharmapala). He

called the Gurjar Pratihara ‘Jurz’. He wrote that the Jurz had the finest horses. He called the

king of Deccan ‘Balhara’ (identified as Vallabhraja). He called Hind Mahasagar (Indian

Ocean) ‘Dariya-i-Hargand’.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Ibn Khudadhbih (864 AD) was an Arab geographer. He wrote a book namely ‘Kitab-al

Masalik-wa-Mamalik’ i.e., the Book of Roads and Kingdoms. In this book he gives

important information about intercommunication system of the 9^th Century. He was the first

person among Arab geographers who speaks about the seven castes of Hindu’s.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Al Biladuri (died – 892 AD) wrote ‘Futuh-ul-Buldan’. It describes the Sindh conquest by

Arabs (Muhammad bin Qasim).

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Al Masudi (died – 956 AD) was an Arab traveller. He visited India in 1915 AD during the

reign of Gujrat Pratihara king Malipala-I. He called the Gujrat dynasty ‘Al Gujar’ and their

rulers ‘Barua’. He wrote ‘Muruz-ul-Jahab’. In this text, he described horses and camels of

Mahipala-I, the Pratihara king. He described ‘Paan’ (beetal leaf) in detail. He gives a fairly

good account of Arab principalities of Multan and Mansura.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Ibn Hawkal (943 – 79 AD) was a merchant of Baghdad. He came to India from Baghdad

via different regions of Europe and Africa. He visited the state of Rashtrakutas. He

wrote‘Askal-al-vilad’. He made a cartographic map of Sindh. He was the first person

among Arab geographers who attempted to define the length and breadth of India. This was

the first attempt by any foreigner to define the boundaries of India.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Alberuni (973 – 1048 AD): His full name was Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed

Alberuni, but he was popularly known as ‘Alberuni’ meaning ‘Ustad’ (i.e., Teacher/Master).

He was born in Khwarizm (Modern Khiwa) of Uzbekistan. He was captivated by Mahmud

Ghazanavi, the sultan of Ghazani during Khiwa battle (1017 AD). Mahmud Ghazanavi

brought him Ghazani and was very impressed by his multifarious talent. So, Mahmud

Ghazanavi appointed him ‘Najumi’(court-astrologer).

In 1019 AD Alberuni came to India with his patron Mahmud Ghazanavi and stayed in

Punjab for many years. He learnt Sanskrit language and studied many books concerned with

Philosophy and other subjects. He was given the title ‘Vidyasagar’ (i.e., the ocean of 

knowledge) by Hindus.

After his return to Ghazani, he compiled a book in Arabic language ‘Tehqiq-i-Hind’ (i.e.,

Enquiry into India or Reality of India) in 1029-30 AD. This book is also called ‘Tarikh-i

Hind’ (i.e., History of India) or, ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’ (i.e., Book of India). Like an

encyclopaedia this book contains detailed information about Indian society and culture and

other fields of knowledge. It is believed that this is the best foreign account of India. Such

extensive and authentic study of Indian society and culture had not been done before.

Therefore, Alberuni is called ‘First Real Indologist’. He was given the title ‘The Real

Founder of Indology’. (Note: Megasthanese was believed to be the ‘Beginner of

Indology’.) There are two shortcomings of the book – firstly, Alberuni says practically

nothing about political condition of India during his own times and secondly, he wrote from

what he read and not from what he saw. His information is not based on his personal

knowledge but on what he read in books. This book has been translated into English namely

‘Alberuni’s India’ by Edward C. Sachau. In the word of Jarret: “This book is a magic island

of quite impartial research in the midst of a world of clashing swords, burning towns and

plundered temples”.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Ibn Batuta (1304 – 69 AD): The full name of Ibn Batuta was Abu Abdullah Muhammad

ibn Abdullah Lawal-ut-Tangi ibn Batuta. He was born in 1304 AD at Tangier in Morocco of

Africa. He was a Morroccan (African) traveller. In 1333 AD, he came to India in the reign

of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, the Sultan of Delhi Sultanate. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq

welcomed him and appointed Qazi (i.e., Judge) of Delhi. Ibn Batuta held this post up till

1342 AD when he was sent to China as an ambassador of Delhi Sultanate, but unfortunately

he did not reach China due to shipwreck. He wrote a travel account of India in which he

gives valuable information about life and period of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. He described

\the reasons and circumstances of transfer of capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad).

In 1345 AD he stayed in the court of Gayasuddin Muhammad Damghan Shah, the Sultan of

Madurai. In 1353 AD he returned to his native place Tangier in Morocco. In 1355 AD he

wrote a book in Arabic language ‘Rihla’ (i.e., Travel). He died in 1369 AD.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Sihabal Dinumari (1348 AD) was a resident of Dymascus (Syria). He had never come to

India, but on the basis of information received by the Indian-returned persons he wrote a

book ‘Masalika Absari Mamalika Asar’ in 1348 AD. It throws light on the socio-economic

conditions.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Abdurrazzaq (1413 – 82 AD) was born in Herat (Afghanistan) in 1413 AD. He was a Qazi

at the court of Shaharukh, the son of Timur Lang and Sultan of Samarkand (Persia). He was

sent by Shaharukh as an ambassador to the Zamorin of Calicut in 1442 AD. In April 1443

AD, he visited Vijayanagara during the reign of Devaraya-II. He stayed in the capital city of

Vijayanagara for 6 months. He was overawed with the size and grandeur of the city of

Vijayanagara. He says: “The city is such that the eyes has not seen nor the ear heard of any

place resembling it upon the whole earth”. He gives valuable information on the

topography, administration and social life of Vijayanagara. Besides this text ‘Malta-us

Sadan-wa-Mazama-ul-Bahrain’ (i.e., the rising of two pious stars and conjuncture of two

seas) describes the maritime trade through Hind Mahasagar (Indian Ocean) during 14^th –

15^th centuries.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

II.  Archaeological Sources

Origin & Development of Indian Archaeology

~~~~~~~~

In India, archaeology – related activities had been started by Europeans.

~~~~~~~~~

Eminent orientalist Sir William Jones (1746 – 94 AD) founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal

(Calcutta) in 1784 AD.

~~~~~~~~~

In the beginning, the activities of the Asiatic Society were limited to the language & literature, but soon

the society had to take notice of archaeology. A large number of inscriptions were collected, but there

was a big problem. These inscriptions could not be deciphered because of the ignorance of the script.

This problem was because of the ignorance of the script. This problem was solved by James Princep

(1799 – 1840 AD), a minister of Asiatic Society and founding editor of the journal of the Asiatic

Society and founding editor of the journal of the Asiatic Society, but decipherment of the Brahmi Script

in 1837 AD after strenuous labour of 7 years and after that he succeeded to decipher Ashokan

inscriptions. He also deciphered Kharosthi Script.

George Tumour (1799 – 1842 AD), an officer of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) Civil Service, take forward the

research work regarding, Indian archaeology, by the identification of ‘Piyadassi’ (Priyadarshi) with

Mauryan King ‘Ashoka’ as mentioned in ancient Buddhist texts.

~~~~~~~~~

Sir Alexander Cunningham, a British army engineer deputed in Bengal, was very helpful in

explanation work of James Princep.

~~~~~~~~~

Sir Alexander Cunningham (1861 – 85 AD) was appointed Archaeological Surveyer at 

theArchaeologcal Survey of India, New Delhi (founded in 1861 during the reign of Governor General

& Viceroy Lord Canning). Cunningham laid the foundation of the Indian Archaeology by his intensive 

researches in the field of exploration and excavations.

~~~~~~~~~

For his great contribution to Indian archeology Sir Alexander Cunningham is called ‘Father of Indian

Archaeology’.

~~~~~~~~~

In 1885 AD, Cunningham retired from his post. After his retirement James Burges (1886 – 89 AD)

held the post, but after his retirement in 1889 AD, the chaos spreaded there that prolonged for about 13

years (1889 – 1902 AD).

~~~~~~~~~

In the early years of 20^th century, favourable condition had been established by Governor General 

& Viceroy Lord Curzon. He set up a separate Department of Archaeology and appointed Sir John 

Marshall as the Director-General of Archaeological Survey of India in 1902 AD. Marshall held this

post for 26 years (1902 – 1928 AD).

~~~~~~~~~

Sir John Marshall with help of his associates – Dayaram Sahani (Discovery of Harappa - 1921),

Rakhal Das Banerji (Discovery of Mohanjodaro – 1922), Earnest Mackay (Chanhudaro – 1925), Aurel

Stein (Sutkagendor – 1927) – succeeded firstly to bring to light the ruins of ancient cities. The formal

announcments of the discovery of Indus Civilization was made in 1924 by Sir John Marshall.

Revealing of Indus Civilization changed the stram of History. In other words, it was the turning – point

in Indian History. Now India was placed on global map because it had antique civilization like Iraq

(Mesopotamian Civilization), Egypt (Egyptian Civilization) & China (Chinese Civilization). Before

Marshall’s announcement, it was believed that civilization in India began with vedic Aryans. The

finding of the remains of Indus Civilization disproved this belief. Now, the beginning of Civilization in

India was pushed 2,500 years back. In this way, the antiquity of Indian civilization was established.

~~~~~~~~~

The names of Successors of Sir John Marshall are – H. Hargreaves (1928 – 31 AD), Dayaram Sahani (1931 –

35 AD), J. P. Blackiston (1935 – 37 AD), K. N. Dixit (1937 – 44 AD), Mortimer Wheeler (1944 – 48 AD), N. P.

Chakrabarti (1948 – 50 AD).

Kinds of Archaeological Sources

Archaeological sources are categorised into three categories – Inscriptions, Coins & Monuments. The study of

inscriptions is known as ‘Epigraphy’ and the person who studies it as ‘Epigraphist’. The study of coins is known

as ‘Numismatics’ and the person who studies it as ‘Numismatist’. The Numismatics Society of India was

founded in Allahabad in 1910 AD.

A.  Inscriptions

~~~~~~~~

Inscriptions are the most important sources among Archaeological Sources.

~~~~~~~~~~

Inscriptions are divided into two groups – Foreign and Indigenious.

Foreign Inscriptions

~~~~~~~~~

Boghazkoi Inscription (1380 BC): Boghazkoi Inscription (Asia Minor, Turkey) was discovered in

1906 AD by German archaeologist Hugo Winckler. This inscription was found in the form of Clay

Tablets from Boghazkoi, the capital of ancient Hittites Empire. This inscription contains the description

of an accord between Hittani & Mittani states and mentions four vedic deities – Indra, Mitra, Varun &

Nasatya (i.e., Ashwini Kumar) – as guard – deities of accord. These gods are also mentioned in the Rig

Veda. Thus Boghazkoi Inscription proved that Asia Minor was the original homeland of the Aryans. In

other Words, it confirms the Central Asian Theory. It indicates the transition of Aryans from Central

Asia to India via Iran.

~~~~~~~~~~

Behistun Inscription (520 – 18 BC) & Naqsh – i – Rustam Inscription (515 BC) : These two

inscriptions are concerned with the reign of Persian / Iranian emperor Darius-I. These are found from

Behistun & Naqsh-i-Rustam. According to Behistun Inscription, Darius-I annexed the ‘Gadar’ (i.e.,

Gandhar) and the ‘Shatagu’ (i.e., Saptsindhu) and after annexation he constituted the area in 20^th Strapi

(i.e., province) of his empire. This province was so fertile that from this province the empire received

360 Talent gold dust as revenue (according to Herodotus). According to Naqsh-i-Rustam Inscription,

Persian Emperor Darius-I possessed the ‘Hindu’ (i.e., Sindhu) valley.

Iranian inscriptions are written in Persian language and Cuneiform script. Before 1837 AD, Iranian

inscriptions were deciphered by Henry Rawlinson (an officer of the British East India Company and

deputed in Afghanistan) and others.

It is notable that among Foreign Inscriptions of India, the earliest deciphered inscriptions are Iranian Inscriptions

that is Behistun & Naqsh-i-Rustam Inscription. Of course, among Indigenous Inscripton, the earliest deciphered

inscription are Ashokan Inscriptions.

Indigenous Inscriptions

~~~~~~~~~

Some scholars believe that the tradition of Inscription–inscribing (encarving) in India had begun before coming

of Mauryan King Ashoka. They present two inscriptions as proof of their belief.

1.      Piparahawa Buddhist Urn / Pot Inscription (Siddha-rthnagar district, Uttar Pradesh, 5^th – 4^th Century BC).

2.      Barli Inscription (Ajmer district, Rajasthan).
While some other scholars think that the Inscriptions-inscribing in India begun with Mauryan King Ashoka.

~~~~~~~~~~

Whatever be the matter, but it is fairly certain that the golden period of the tradition of inscription

inscribing in India had begun with the period of Mauryan King Ashoka.

~~~~~~~~~~~

Among Indigenous Inscription of India the first decipher-red inscriptions are Ashokan inscriptions which were

deciphered in 1837 by James Princep, a civil servant in the employ of the East India Company in Bengal.

I.       North Indian Inscriptions

Mauryan Inscription

Ashokan Inscription

1.      Till date 40 Ashokan inscriptions have been found.

2.      In Ashokan inscriptions only Karuwaki among his queens and only teevar among his children have been mentioned.

3.      In Ashokan inscriptions the word ‘Pasand’ for Sampradaya i.e., community, ‘Bambhan’ for Brahmana and ‘Nirath’ for Nirgranth i.e., Jatin have used.

4.      Bhabru inscription is the only Ashokan inscription in which Boustrophendon (Bailmutti i.e., writing like piss of anox) script is used. This script is a bidirectional script i.e., from right to left and left to right in alternate line.

5.      In yeraguddi inscription (Andhra Pradesh) the matter of inscription is written in Brahmi script but right to left (Note – Brahmi script is written from left to right direction only).

6.      In four Ashokan inscriptions found from Maski, Gurjara, Nittur & Udegolam, the word ‘Ashoka’ is used for him.

7.      Bhabru inscription is the only Ashokan inscription in which Mauryan King Ashoka called himself ‘Magadhiraj’ i.e., Raja of Magadh.

8.      Ashokan Junagdh (Girnar) Major Rock Edict is the inscription on which later Saka ruler rudradaman (130 – 50 AD) and Gupta ruler Skandagupta (455 – 67 AD) inscribed their inscriptions.

9.      Ashokan Allahabad Pillar Edict is the inscription on which the inscription of four persons are inscribed – Ashoka, Karuwaki, Samudragupta & Jehangir.

10.  The first discovered inscription of Ashoka is Meerut – Delhi Pillar Edict which was discovered in 1750 AD by Joseph Tiefenthaler a European Jesuit Missionary & Geographer.

11.  Ashokan inscriptions are generally written in Brahmi script and Prakrit language.

12.  Though Prakrit was the language used in Ashokan inscription, the script varied from region to region – Brahmi script in Eastern India, Kharosthi script in North-Western India and Greek & Aramaik scripts in Western India.

13.  In Manshera & shahbajgadh (both in pakistan) Inscription Kharosthi script (Script that is written from right to left) is used.

14.  In Shara-i-Kuna (Kandhar, Afghanistan) Inscription Greek & Aramaik script is used.

15.  Devdatta Ramkrishna (D. R.) Bhandarkar has written a book ‘Ashoka’ (Published in 1925 AD) which is based only on the inscription of Ashoka.

Dasharatha’s Nagarjuni Cave Inscription (220 BC): This inscription is found in Nagarjuni hills situated in

Jehanabad district of Bihar state. This inscription is written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. According to

the inscription, king Dasharatha (grandson of Ashoka) donated three caves namely Vapkia, Gopika & Vadithika

cave to Ajivika monks so that they could reside in the rainy season.

Post – Mauryan Inscriptions

~~~~~~~~~~

Heliodorus’s Besnagar Garud Pillar Inscription (Second half of 2^nd Century BC): This pillar

inscription is situated in Besnagar village (Bhilsa district, Madhya Pradesh). This inscribed pillar was

erected in front of the Vishnu Temple by Heliodorus (an ambassador sent by Antiolcides (115 BC – 110

BC), the Indo-Bactrian ruler, to the court of Bhagabhadra, the Shung King).

In this inscription Heliodorus called himself ‘Bhagwat’ that confirms he was the follower of Bhagwat

religion. This pillar was surmounted by a sculpture of Garud and was dedicated to the god Vishnu. It

confirms the religious impact of India on Greeks.

~~~~~~~~~

Dhanadeo’s Ayodhya Stone Inscription (1^st Century BC): It is encarved on a stone-piece which is 1

km away from Ayodhyanagar in Basti district of Uttar Pradesh state. It is written in Sanskrit language

and Brahmi script. It is the earliest available inscription written in Sanskrit language. This was

inscribed by Dhanadeo of Shun dynasty. It contains the information about Pushyamitra Shung, founder

of Shun dynasty, their capital Ayodhya, Ashwamedha Yajnas performed twice by him, victory over the

Greek etc.

~~~~~~~~~

Kharavela’s Hathigumpha Inscription (1^st Century BC): This inscription is inscribed on the upper

part of Hathigumpha (Gumpha is an Odeshi synonym of Hindi word Gupha, i.e., cave). It was inscribed

by Kharavela, the Cheti / Chedi or Mahameghavahan ruler of Kalinga. It is written in Prakrit language

and Brahmi script. It throws light on the life of Kharavela, his acts and the events of his reign year by

year (from coronation to 13^th years of his rule). It described the Kalinga ruler Kharavela and his queen

as the patron of Jain region. Kharavela was a follower of Jain religion and he took up the tittle

‘Bhikshuraj’. This inscription describes how he invaded Magadh and made their king Brihaspatimitra

(Shung dynasty) pay homage at his feet. He returned home (i.e., Kalinga) with the statue and the foot –

marks of the first Jina (i.e., Rishabhadeva) which had been carried away three centuries ago by king

Nanda. The important points among other details of the inscription are – Extension of the old canal

(excavated by king Nanda) up to the capital Kalinga from Tanasuliya; Construction of Mahavijaya

Palace; Construction of a large temple at Bhubaneshwar etc. In this inscription he called himself

‘Chakravarti’ ruler. This is the first inscription in which word ‘Bharatvarsha’ is mentioned.

~~~~~~~~~

Nagagnika’s Nanaghat Cave Inscription (Second half of 1^st Century BC): This inscription is found

from a cave of Nanaghat in Poona (Pune) district of Maharashtra state. It is written in Prakrit language

and Brahmi script. It was inscribed by Satavahana ruler Shatakarni’s wife Nagagnika who was a

daughter of Maharathi of Maharashtra. It throws light on achievements of Shatakarni (20 BC….). In

this inscription Shatakarni is called ‘Apratihatchakra’ ‘Dakshinadhipati’, ‘Dhan of Simuk Vansha’ etc.

It mentions Yajnas (i.e., sacrifices) --- Ashwamedha Yajna (2 times), Rajasuya Yajna, Agnadheya Yajna

etc – performed by Shatakarni. It contains the information that at the time of death of Shatakarni both

his sons – Shaktishri & Vedashri – were minor, so their mother Nagagnika held the power in her hand

as regent.

~~~~~~~~~

Gautami Balashri’s Nasik Cave Prashasti Inscription (141 AD): It is found from a cave of

Nasiknagar of Maharashtra state. It throws light on Satavahana ruler Gautamiputra Shatakarni (106 –

130 AD). It was inscribed in 141 AD by his mother Gautami Balashri in the reign of Vashishthiputra

Pulumavi (130 – 154 AD). Due to this reason, this inscription is sometimes known as Vashishthiputra

Pulmavi’s Nasik Prashasti Inscription. This inscription throws light on victories of Gautamiputra 

Shatakarni and his devotion towards the religion. According to the inscription, he took up the title of

‘Khatiya-dap-man-madanas’, ‘Saka-Yavan-Palhav-Nisudanam’, ‘Khakharat-Vas-Niravases-Keras’,

‘Satavahana-Kula Yas-Patithapan-Karas’ etc. He took up the title of ‘Tri-Samudra-Toya-Pita-Vahana’

i.e., on whose horses drank the water of three seas in the east, west, and south (identified as the Bay of

Bengal, the Arabian Sea & The Indian Sea).

~~~~~~~~~

Mathura Stone Pillar Inscription of Huwishka’s Time (106 AD): It is inscribed on the pillar found

from a red well near Chaurasi Jain Temple at Mathura in Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh state. At

present this inscription is conserved in Mathura Museum. It is written in Prakrit language and Brahmi

script. It was inscribed by a donor namely Sarakman of Kushan’s ruler Huwishka’s time. It states a

chief who deposited money as a ‘Akshaynivi’ (i.e., permanent amount) to a guild of floor millers for

the maintenance of 100 Brahmanas out of the monthly interest on it. The last line of this inscription

states that the pious fruit of his grant firstly goes to the king Huwishka – it displays the respect to the

king in the minds of general people.

~~~~~~~~~

Ushabhadata’s Nasik Cave Inscription (1^st Century AD): It is inscribed in the Dhasami Cave of

Pandu Lena in Nasik city of Maharashtra state. It is written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. It

was inscribed by Ushabhadata, son-in-law of Kshaharat strap ruler of Nasik Nahpan. It defines the

boundaries of Nahpan state. It contains the information about the guild system of that time. According

to the inscription, Ushabhadata deposited 3,000 Kahapana (Karshapana) as a ‘Akshayanivi’ (i.e.,

permanent amount) in which 2,000 Kahapana to weaver’s guild. The interest of this amount can be

spend for clothes and other things of Bhikshus who resided in the Dhasami Cave of Pandu Lena.

Rudradaman’s Junagadh / Girnar Inscription (150 AD): It is inscribed on a stone-piece which is situated at

Girnar hills near Junagadh city of Gujarat state. It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script. It is the first

long Sanskrit inscription of India. It was inscribed by Saka ruler Rudradaman. According to the inscription,

Rudradaman defeated various kings and annexed their states – Akara (East Malwa), Avanti (West Malwa),

Anupa, Anart (North Kathiawar), Saurashtra (South Kathiawar), Subhra (the region on the Sabarmati), Maru

(Marwar), Kuccha (Cutch), Sindhu (East of the lower Indus), Suvira (West of the lower Indus), Kukura, Aparant

(North Konkan) & Nisbada (West Vindhya & Aravali). From this inscription we get the history of Sudarsana

Lake. According to this inscription, the Sudarsana Lake which existed from the time of Chandragupta Maurya

and Ashoka (Pusyagupta, the provincial governor of Chandragupra Maurya built the Sudarsana Lanke and

Yonraj Tusfak (Iranian), the provincial governor of Ashoka repaired this lake) burst in time of Rudradaman.

There was a lot of destruction. Sudarsana became Dudarsana. Rudradaman repaired this lake from his own

pocket and had not imposed any tax on the public. The repairing work was done under the supervision of

Suvishakh, the provincial governor of Rudradaman. This is the first inscription in which for the first time Laxmi

along with Vishnu is mentioned.

Inscription of Gupta Period

~~~~~~~~~~

Samudragupta’s Prayag (Allahabad) Prashasti Inscription (360 AD): This pillar inscription stands

inside the fort at Allahabad and not in its original place of Prayag (Kosambi). The Prashasti (i.e.,

eulogy) inscribed on it was composed by Harishena the Mahasandhivigrahik (the minister of peace and

war) of Samudragupta. It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script. The earlier part of the

inscription is composed in verse while the later part of the inscription is in prose. It throws light on the

coronation of Samudragupta, his conquests in all directions and his personality. There is a long

sentence running into 33 lines in it. The content of 7^th – 8^th line – Announcement of Chandragupta-I at

the court that Samudragupta will be his successor, jealousy felt by ‘Tulyakulajas’ due to coronation of

Samudragupta; Content of 13^th line – Victory over Achyut and Nagasena, annexation of Patliputra;

Content of 17^th – 18^th line – Samudragupta described as ‘one whose only ally was valour (Parakrama)

through the might of his own arm’, ‘whose body is covered with scar-marks caused by various

weapons’; Content of 19^th – 20^th line – Victory over 12 rulers of Dakshinapatha; Content of 21^st line –

defeating of 9 rulers of Naga dynasty at Kosambi; Content of 24^th line – Subordination accepted by

Kider – Kushan ruler Devputra Shahi Shahanushahi, Saka ruler Rudrasena-III, Saka-Murund ruler,

Sinhali (Sri Lankan) king Meghvarna, Jawa, Sumatra & Malay islands; content of 27^th line –

Samudragupta described as ‘Kaviraja’ because he was so expert in music that Narad and Tumbaru were

ashamed; Content of 28^th line – Samudragupta described as ‘Patron of Scholars’; content of 29^th – 30^th

line – Samudragupta described as ‘Lichchhawi Dauhitra’, ‘Maharajadhiraja’, ‘Avtar (incarnation) of

Vishnu’, ‘Prachir (wall) bound with Dharma’ (religious) etc.

~~~~~~~~~~~

Samudragupta’s Eran Inscription:  In this inscription Samudragupta is called ‘Sarvarajochchheta’

(i.e., uprooter of all kings). According to this inscription he was married with Datta Devi. It states that

‘Erikini’ (i.e., Eran) was his ‘Swabhoganagar’ (i.e., personal Jagir).

~~~~~~~~~~~

Samudragupta’s Nalanda Copper Plate Inscription: It is found from a ‘Vihar’ (i.e., monastery) in

Nalanda of Bihar state. It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script. This copper plate

inscription of donative nature contains the conditions on which ‘Agrahar’ (i.e., land grant) had been

given to Brahmanas by the donor. It contains the Gupta Genealogy (from Srigupta to Samudragupta).

~~~~~~~~~~~

Samudragupta’s Gaya Copper Plate Inscription: It is found from Gaya of Bihar state. The content

of the inscription is similar to the content of his Nalanda copper plate inscription.

~~~~~~~~~~~

Chandragupta-II’s Udaygiri Inscription: it is inscribed on two caves at Udaygiri hills near Vidisha

of Madhya Pradesh state. The first cave was encarved by a feudatory belonging to Sankanik region of

Chandragupta-II and the second cave by Veersen Shab, Sandhivigrahik (minister of peace and war) of

Chandragupta-II. This inscription throws light on victory over western region by Chandragupta-II.

~~~~~~~~~~~

Chadra’s Mehrauli (Delhi) Iron Pillar Inscription: It is concerned with the king named Chandra

(identified as the Gupta ruler Chandragupta-II by scholars mostly).

~~~~~~~~~~~

Kumargupta-I’s Damodarpur Copper Plate Inscription: It is found from Damodarpur in Dinajpur

District of Northern Bengal. It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script. This inscription

confirms that Northern Bengal was a part of Kumargupta-I’s empire. It throws light on the state

organisation and administrative system of Gupta period.

~~~~~~~~~~~

Kumargupta-I’s Mandsore Stone Inscripton: It is inscribed on a stone – piece of an embankment at

Sivana River in Mandsore of Madhya Pradesh. It throws light on decline of commerce and industries in

Later Gupta Period. This inscription describes that a guild of silk weavers migrated from Lat (Southern

Gujarat) to Dashpur (Mandsore) due to the decline in silk industry they settled in Dashpur (Mandsore)

and constructed there a temple dedicated to god Surya (i.e., the Sun).

~~~~~~~~~~~

Skandagupta’s Girnar / Junagadh Inscription : It throws light on the provincial administration of

Skandagupta. It describes the appointement of ‘Gopta’ (i.e., Provincial Governor) and the qualities of

an ideal ‘Gopta’. It contains the information that the embankment of Sudarsana Lake was damaged

once again and it was repaired by Chakrapalita, the Purapati (i.e., head of the city) of Girnar city and

son of Pranadatta, the ‘Gopta’ of Saurashtra. In this inscription Kumargupta is described as ‘Kalyankari

Raja’ (i.e., Benevolent King) and Chakrapalita as ‘Adarsh Nagar Rakshak’ (i.e., Ideal city protector).

~~~~~~~~~~~

Skandagupta’s Bhitari Pillar Inscription: It is inscribed on a pillar which is situated outside the

Bhitari village in Ghazipur district of Uttar Pradesh state. It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi

script. It describes the erection of pillar, the construction of a temple in which the statue of Bhagwan

Sharngi (i.e., God Vishnu) was established and donation of revenue received from Bhitari village for

the expenses of temple by Skandagupta. It contains the Gupta geneology (from Srigupta to

Skandagupta). It mentions the invasion of Huns.

~~~~~~~~~~~

Skandagupta’s Indore Copper Plate Inscription: It contains the information about a Saur

Sampradaya (i.e., community concerned with the sun), Tailika Shreni (i.e., Guild of oil-millers) that

worked like a bank and administrative unit named ‘Antarvedi’ and their administrator ‘Sharvanaga’.

~~~~~~~~~~~

Bhanugupta’s Eran Stone Inscription (510 AD): It is found from Eran in Sagar district of Madhya

Pradesh. It describes the battle between Bhanugupta and Hun invader Tormana. Goparaj, a feudatory of

Bhanugupta, was killed during the battle and his wife entered the mass of fire (funeral pyre). This is the

first archaeological evidence of Sati-Pratha (i.e., the custom of immolation of a widow after the death

of her husband) in ancient India.

~~~~~~~~~~~

Tormana’s Eran Varah Statue Inscription: It is inscribed on a statue of Varah found from Eran (Sagar district,

Madhya Pradesh). It describes political achievements and religious interest of Hun ruler Tromana.

Later Inscriptions

~~~~~~~~~~

Harshavardhana’s Banskhera Copper-Plate Inscription: It is found in Banskhera in Shahjehanpur

district of Uttar Pradesh. It throws light on the administration and economy of Harshavardhana. It gives

account of the donation of tax-free village namely Markat (Vishaya-Angdiya, Bhukti - Ahichhotra) to

two Brahamanas by Harshavardhana. It contains the replica of signature of Harshavardhana that

clarifies that he was a good calligraphist.

~~~~~~~~~~~

Yashodharmana’s Mandsore Stone Pillar Inscription: It was inscribed by Malwa ruler

Yashodharmana. According to this inscription, he defeated Hun ruler Mihirkula and annexed Malwa.

~~~~~~~~~~~

Mihirbhoja’s Gwaliar Prashasti Inscription: It was inscribed by Pratihara King Mihirbhoja. In the

inscription, Mihirbhoja is described as a great conqueror, comptent administratior and benevolent ruler.

~~~~~~~~~~~

Parmara Bhoja’s Dhara Prashasti Inscription: It throws light on political and cultural achievements

of Bhoja of Parmara Dynasty.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Vijayasen’s Devpara Prashasti Inscription: It describes the events that occurred during the reign of vijayasen,

the founder of Sen Dynasty.

II.   South Indian Inscriptions

~~~~~~~~~~~

Pulkeshin-II’s Aihole Prashasti Inscription: It is inscribed in Vishnu temple at Aihole in Bagalkot

district of Karnataka state. It is a eulogy and written by the court poet of Pulkeshin-II and Jain follower

Ravikriti. It throws light on the successes of Pulkeshin-II, the Chalukya ruler of Vatapi / Badami. This

inscription begins with an invocation to Jitendra (lord of the Jinas) According to the inscription,

Pulkeshin-II defeated Harshavardhana on the bank of Narmada and checked Harsha’s campaign to

conquer Deccan. On this occasion, Pulkeshin-II took up the tittle ‘Parameshwar’. In this inscription

Ravikrtiti describes himself as the equal of Kalidasa and Bhasa. According to the inscription, the

Mahabharat war was fought in 3101 BC.

~~~~~~~~~~~~

Narsinghvarman’s Malikarjuna Temple Stone Inscription: It contains the conquest of Pallava ruler

Narsinghvarmana over Chalukya ruler of Badami Pulkeshin-II. On this occasion Narsinghvarmana took

up the title ‘Mahamalla’.

~~~~~~~~~~~~

Dantidurg’s Allora Cave Inscription: It is inscribed in Dashavatar Temple of Allora. It describes the

conquests of Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurg over Kalinga, Koshal, Kanchi Malaw, Lat, Tank etc.

~~~~~~~~~~~~

Rajaraja’s Tanjore Inscription: It throws light on the successes of Chola king Rajaraja. (Note –

Rajaraja was the first Indian king who conceived the idea of Inscription begin with historical preface /

introduction). According to the inscription Rajaraja defeated Chera in the battle of Kandaloor. He

annexed Northeren Sri Lanka.

~~~~~~~~~~~

Rajendra-I’s Tiruvalangar Copper Inscription: It describes the Victories of Chola ruler Rajendra-I.

According to the inscription, Rajndra-I defeated Sumatra ruler Vijayottung Varmana. It contains the

information about the revenue system of Cholas.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Uttarmerur Inscription of Prantaka Time: It contains the details about local government prevalent during

Chola period.

B.    Coins

~~~~~~~~

Coins help us a great deal to know the history of ancient India.

~~~~~~~~

These coins confirm, revise, change or extend the facts received from literary sources.

~~~~~~~~

Coins are of various metals – copper, silver, gold and others.

~~~~~~~~~

For convenience of study, coins are divided into two categories – Indigenous & Foreign.

(i)   Indigenous Coins

(a) Early Punch-Marked Coins

~~~~~~~~~

Early coins of India are Punch-marked coins. They are called punch-marked because pieces of metal

were punched with certain marks / symbols, such as a hill, tree, fish, bull, elephant, crescent etc.

~~~~~~~~

Punch-marked coins have no inscription, but only marks.

~~~~~~~~

The earliest punch-marked coins were made largely of silver, through a few copper coins also existed.

~~~~~~~~

The punch-marked coins were made largely in quadrilateral shape.

~~~~~~~~

The punch-marked coins (i.e., coins made of metal) appear first in the 6^th Century BC. These coins

were in circulation for around four centuries – from 6^th Century to 2^nd Century BC (i.e., from

Mahajanpadas period to Shung period).

~~~~~~~~~

The punch-marked coins were issued first by the Guilds of merchants, later by States.

(b) Indo-Bactrian Coins

~~~~~~~~~~

The practice of writing the names of kings and the figures of the rulers, deities etc was started by the

Indo-Bactrian kings, the ruler of North-Western India.

~~~~~~~~~

The writings on the coins included the names of the kings, their titles, their personal interests, religious

beliefs etc. The figures of the kings were encarved on the front side of the coins while the figures of the

deities were encarved on the back side of the coins.

~~~~~~~~~

Actually these were the coins that enabled us to construct the complete history of Indo-Bactrian rulers.

The classical writers refer to only four or five Indo-Bactrian rulers and in the absence of these coins,

the names of other Indo-Bactrian rulers would have remained absolutely unknown.

~~~~~~~~~

Besides this, it was the Indo-Bactrian rulers who first of all issued the gold coin.

The Indo-Bactrian coins possess a high degree of excellence in many ways and ultimately had a tremendous

influence on Indian coinage.

(c) Scythian (Saka), Parthian (Pahlava) & Kushana Coins

~~~~~~~~~~

After Indo-Bactrian, Scythian (Saka), Parthian (Pahlava) and Kushana rulers had ruled over North

Western India. They issued coins in the analogy of Indo-Bactrian coins.

~~~~~~~~

These coins played key-role in constructing the history of Scythian (Saka), Parthian (Pahlava) &

Kushana rulers.

The existence of the Malavas, Yaudheyas and the Mitra rulers of Panchala is known only from the

coins.

~~~~~~~~

First of all, Saka Strap Rudradaman (130 – 50 AD) issued dated coins in Sanskrit.

~~~~~~~~

The Satavahana rulers issued their coins in lead (mainly), copper, bronze & potin.

~~~~~~~~~

The kushana ruler were the first rulers in India who issued gold coins regularly and on a large scale. Among gold

coins of ancient rulers of India the gold coins of Kushana rulers contain the most purity.

(d) Gupta Coins

~~~~~~~~~

The Gupta rulers issued the largest number of gold coins.

~~~~~~~~

Among Gupta rulers Chandragupta-I was the first ruler who first of all issued the gold coins. He

issued only one type of gold coins – King-Queen type or Chandragupta-Kumardevi type.

Original types of gold coins of Samudragupta – Garud type, Dhanurdhari i.e. Archer type, Axe type,

Ashvamedha type, Vyaghrahanan i.e. Tiger-killing type & Veenavadan i.e. flute playing type; Original

types of gold coins of Chandragupta-II, ‘Vikramaditya’ – Ashvarohi type, Chhatradhari type &

Chakra-Vikram type; Original type of gold coins of Kumargupta-I – Khadagdhari type, Gajarohi type,

Gajarohi Sinhnihanta type, Khang-nihanta i.e., rhinocerous-slayer type, Kartikeya type & Apratigh –

mudra type.

~~~~~~~~

Among the Gupta rulers, Chandragupta-II ‘Vikramaditya’ was the first ruler who issued silver coins.

~~~~~~~~

Among the Gupta rulers, Ramgupta was the first and only ruler who issued copper coins.

~~~~~~~~

The gold coins of Gupta rulers is known as ‘Dinars’ whereas the silver coins of Gupta rulers as

‘Rupak’.

After decline of the Guptas and before the foundation of Delhi Sultanate, Indian Currency have suffered a bad

phase. It is evident that we get few coins of the succeeding dynasties in the the North India as well as South

India.

(ii) Foreign Coins

~~~~~~~~~

The gold and silver coins of Roman emperors are found from various parts of South India especially in

Arikmendu (near Pondicherry), Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. These coins are of the

period of Roman emperor Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) and Tiberius (14 – 37 AD).

~~~~~~~~~

It throws ligh on the trade relation between India and Roman Empire.

C.    Monuments

~~~~~~~~~

Under the Monuments are included all the artistic works concerned with Architecture, Sculpture,

Painting, Artefacts etc.

Artefacts : Pottery, tools of stone, metal (like Copper, Iron etc.) objects are all in the class of things

made by man, which are therefore called ‘Artefacts’.

~~~~~~~~~

Through the study of monuments we know the history of development of Art.

Besides this, it throws light on religious, socio-economic conditions of concerned time.

I.  Indigenous Monuments

~~~~~~~~~~~

The excavations of Harappa, Mohanjodaro etc. reveal around 5 millennium years old Indus

Civilization. It is after the discovery of the Indus Civilization that we began to talk of a civilization in

India prior to that of the Vedic Aryans.

~~~~~~~~~~~~

The excavations of Ataranjikhera etc. indicate that in the Gangetic valley of India the use of iron began

in 1000 BC.

~~~~~~~~~~~

The excavations of various sites of South India show miscellaneous information viz. close trade

relation between South India and Rome.

~~~~~~~~~~~

The earliest temple found in India – Dashavatar Temple Deogarh (Lalitput district of Uttar Pradesh) of

Gupta Period. It is the temple of Nagara (Shikhar) style.

~~~~~~~~~~~

The best example of temple of Nagar style – Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneshwara Temple, Tanjore (in

1000 AD built by the Chola ruler Rajaraja-I).

~~~~~~~~~~~

The earliest statues found in India – Statues found from the sites of Indus Civilization viz, stone statue

of a dancer found from Harappa, bronze statue of nude woman dancer found from Mohenjodaro etc.

~~~~~~~~~~~~

The earliest samples of paintings found in India – cave paintings found from the sites of Lithic (the stone) period

viz, paintings in Bhimbetaka cave (Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh).

II.  Foreign Monuments

~~~~~~~~~

Besides India, some such monuments are found in the countries of South-East Asia which throws light

on the history of ancient India.

~~~~~~~~~~

These monuments found mainly from Indonesia (Java, Sumatra, Bali, and Borneo etc. islands), Malaya

(Malaysia), Kambuj (Cambodia), Syam (Thailand), Champa (Vietnam), Suvarnabhumi (Burma) etc.

~~~~~~~~~~~

Among these monuments some notable monuments are – 

(a)  Buddhist Temple of Borobodur (Java Island, Indonesia): It was built by the ruler of Shailendra dynasty

who belonged to Shrivijaya Empire of Java-Sumatra in 8^th century AD. It is the largest Buddhist temple in the

world.

(b)  Vaishnava Temple of Angkor-Vat (Cambodia): It was built by Suryavarma (1113 – 45 AD), the ruler of

Kaudinya dynasty of Kambuj in 12^th Century AD.

(c)  Anand Pagoda (Buddhist Temple) of Pagan of Burma (now known as Myanmar): It was built by

Kyanzittha (Tribhuvanaditya), the successor of Pagan ruler Aniruddha, in 11^th – 12^th century AD.